Disappointment Drives Polarization

Affective polarization is propelled less by hatred and more by a sense of disappointment that political opponents are shirking their responsibilities to the shared public good. Framing polarization as disappointed expectations shifts focus from demonization to restoring norms of reciprocity and contribution. — If true, remedies should emphasize rebuilding shared civic obligations and reciprocity (norms, institutions, incentives) rather than solely countering hatred or moral outrage.