Household‑Centered Vaccine Value

Vaccination not only protects the vaccinated (an estimated ~80% case reduction in this study) but confers large indirect protection to household contacts — roughly three‑quarters of the direct effect — while showing negligible spillovers to schoolmates. Policies that evaluate vaccine benefit should therefore account for high‑value household externalities (and their spatial limits) when deciding prioritization, mandates, and subsidy designs. — Incorporating household‑level indirect effects changes cost‑effectiveness and equity calculations for vaccine programs and mandates, and clarifies why targeting certain age groups or household compositions can magnify public‑health returns.