SES‑Driven Between‑Family PGS Signal

Between‑family (population) prediction from polygenic scores for education and cognition is substantially shaped by socioeconomic status rather than only individual genetic differences. In twin comparisons the within‑family PGS effect is much smaller than the population effect, and controlling for SES greatly reduces the between‑family gap. — If socioeconomic status drives much of the between‑family PGS signal, using PGS in education, hiring, or insurance without adjusting for family background risks encoding and amplifying social inequality.