Between‑family genetics inflate PGS education

Within‑family (sibling‑difference) prediction for intelligence and educational outcomes is substantially lower than population‑level PGS prediction, and socioeconomic status accounts for much of that gap. That means population PGS partly reflect family‑level processes (assortative mating, shared environment, ancestral structure) rather than only an individual's inherited biology. — Policymakers, clinicians, and educators should treat PGS population estimates cautiously because using them for individual prediction or policy (screening, embryo selection, school placement) risks conflating family/SES effects with individual genetic endowment.